Case Study - The Umayyad Dynasty
Tilly Behrmann
The Umayyad (purple) Empire spanned from Spain to Persia, representing the peak of Islamic expansion.
Overview
The Umayyad Dyansty - spanning from 661-750 B.C.E. - marked the first Islamic Dynasty after the death of Muhammad. The region encompassed by this dynasty spanned from Arabia to modern day Eastern Iran, and was ruled in hereditary succession. Throughout its existence, the Dynasty experienced significant conquests in Northern Africa, Spain, and Central Asia, thus, spreading the Islamic religion and culture. With this, the Umayyad was marked by a distinct Arab military aristocracy. Despite its wide expanse, the Dynasty's central power remained its impressive capital city - Damascus. Located in Damascus was the Umayyad's central government; however, Damascus also served as a symbol of Islamic culture and influence. Often, this luxurious and extravagant affluence was met with criticism, as it was deemed a threat to Islamic piety. The Shia (who believed that leadership should be determined by hereditary decent from either Ali or Husayn) thought the caliphs of the Umayyad to be illegitimate, as they were not direct descendents of Muhammad. The Umayyad was also met with criticism, as it treated conquered non-Arabs as inferiors. This only augmented the effects of the Battle of Tours (732 C.E.), when the Franks defeated the Islamic Empire, halting further expansion, as well as the spread of Islam into Europe. Eventually, the weakened Umayyad Dynasty fell to the Abbasid Revolution (the Abbasids were the descendents of Muhammad's uncle), thus, signifying the end of the Umayyad Caliphate and the beginning of the Abbasid Caliphate.
The Umayyad Dyansty - spanning from 661-750 B.C.E. - marked the first Islamic Dynasty after the death of Muhammad. The region encompassed by this dynasty spanned from Arabia to modern day Eastern Iran, and was ruled in hereditary succession. Throughout its existence, the Dynasty experienced significant conquests in Northern Africa, Spain, and Central Asia, thus, spreading the Islamic religion and culture. With this, the Umayyad was marked by a distinct Arab military aristocracy. Despite its wide expanse, the Dynasty's central power remained its impressive capital city - Damascus. Located in Damascus was the Umayyad's central government; however, Damascus also served as a symbol of Islamic culture and influence. Often, this luxurious and extravagant affluence was met with criticism, as it was deemed a threat to Islamic piety. The Shia (who believed that leadership should be determined by hereditary decent from either Ali or Husayn) thought the caliphs of the Umayyad to be illegitimate, as they were not direct descendents of Muhammad. The Umayyad was also met with criticism, as it treated conquered non-Arabs as inferiors. This only augmented the effects of the Battle of Tours (732 C.E.), when the Franks defeated the Islamic Empire, halting further expansion, as well as the spread of Islam into Europe. Eventually, the weakened Umayyad Dynasty fell to the Abbasid Revolution (the Abbasids were the descendents of Muhammad's uncle), thus, signifying the end of the Umayyad Caliphate and the beginning of the Abbasid Caliphate.
Umayyad Culture
As stated before, the capital city of Damascus became a symbol of Umayyad culture. Perhaps one of the most telling features of this city is its apparent influence from the various civilizations which occupied it, particularly Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic. Thus, the city stands as an exemplary instance of Arabian conquest under the Umayyad Caliphate and the cultural exchanges that occurred because of this conquest. Of particular importance in this capital city was the Great Mosque. Built in 706 C.E., the Great Mosque was built where the Byzantine Church of St. John was destroyed. Perhaps one of the most prominent example of Islamic architecture, the mosque features a domed roof, with distinct Byzantine and Sasanian influence. Additionally, the inside of the mosque featured glass-mosaic depictions of rivers and palaces.
This complex mixture of Byzantine and Sasanian style, showing figural, floral, and animal forms is symbolic of the style that is commonly known as Islamic; thus, the Umayyad Dynasty is often considered the formative period of Islamic art. For instance, in Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock again showcased the unique domed roof, along with glass mosaics. Like many pieces of Islamic religious architecture built in the Umayyad Caliphate, the Dome of the Rock was built on a symbolically and historically significant site - where Muhammad was said to have transcended into heaven. Also characteristic of the Umayyad Dynasty was its use of frescoes and floor mosaics, and integrating Coptic (the Copts were and ethno-religious group in Egypt) design. It is also essential to note that Arabic became the official language of the Umayyad Dynasty during this time period. Again, this is a testament to the spread of Arab culture under the Umayyad Dynasty, and also hints at a strengthened Islamic empire, an undeniable superiority of Arab culture, and finally, a unified nation under one distinct culture. Arab Conquest
Arab conquest and expansion in this Dynasty was extremely notable, as it involved conquering North Africa, Constantinople, Spain, and Georgia. Driving this conquest was the desire for unity in the Islamic faith. The Umayyad believed that by unifying the empire under the common cause of conquest, the Islamic faith could be strengthened. Arab conquest also provided relief from the warring nature with Bedouin tribes, as Bedouin's would earn a portion of the spoils of conquered areas.
Though religious pride did play a role in the drive for expansion, finding converts for Islam was of little significance to the Umayyad Dynasty. This is because the Dynasty placed taxes on non-Arab citizens, in turn for protection. Often, however, this image of Muslims is distorted, on account of the legacy that the lesser Jihad has created. Two major conquests of the Umayyad were the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. The Umayyad easily garnered support from Sasanian peasants, as they were heavily persecuted by the Zoroastrian elite. Thus, when the Umayyad attacked, the elite were easily defeated. In the Byzantine, the Umayyad gained support from the Copts and Nestorians in Egypt, as they were persecuted by the Orthodox Christians. This history of religious tolerance and alliance for protecting non-Muslims greatly differs the stereotypes often considered today, as again, the legacy of the lesser Jihad has tarnished the reputation of Islamic culture. Relationship with Non-Arabs
Despite the nonviolent treatment of non-Arabs, these citizens were often looked upon as inferior. Conversion was still discouraged (as property taxes could be collected from both Jews and Christians). Non-Arabs were referred to as "Dhimmi", and were made to pay jizyn (property taxes). Despite this, however, Jews and Christians were not heavily persecuted. Mawali - or converts to Islam - still had to pay property taxes and were not full citizens. Despite the fact that Islam was easier for conquered peoples to except, as they were not persecuted, conversion rates in the Umayyad were low. Ultimately, however, and especially towards the latter half of the Umayyad Dynasty, the Umayyad was primarily secular, enjoying such luxuries as harems, pleasure gardens, and royal palaces. Eventually, this frivolous lifestyle became insulting to the piety of Islamic faith and led to the weakening (and ultimately, the fall) of the dynasty.
Women in the Umayyad Caliphate
Despite the precarious relationships between Arabs and non-Arabs, women during this time period experienced and enjoyed a wealth of rights and privileges. Marriage was viewed with the utmost importance, and casual sex was commonly looked down upon. Women had notable marriage rights, and polygamy was discouraged. In addition, female infanticide was made illegal, women had choice in who they wished to marry, and the dowry went to the women (not her family or the husband) after a divorce. It is also notable to mention that women were not forced to wear the veil during this time period.
More impressively, women under the Umayyad were allowed to participate in politics, attend schools, and take part in law and trade. 
Above is a picture of a Persian harem dancer from the Umayyad Caliphate. Eventually, this frivolous and un-pious lifestyle led to the criticism of the Umayyad rulers. These luxuries gave way to a decline in war and conquest, eventually leading to the fall of the Caliphate.
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Seen here is the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. As seen above, the characteristic dome and intricate mosaic work define what is commonly referred to as "Islamic" architecture. The site, which is where Muhammad is said to have transcended to Heaven, is also characteristic of Islamic architecture, in its religious significance.
Shown here is a side by side comparison of Byzantine and Umayyad art. The similarities are apparent in the use of mosaics, as well as the elements of movement and figure in the artwork. This is an example of how cultural influence resulted from significant conquest and expansion.
Primary Source: The Pact of Umar (7th Century C.E.)
Below is the Pact of Umar, written in the 7th century by Umar I, after the Islamic invasion of Syria and Palestine. It details the limitations and privileges of both Arab and non-Arab citizens, and acts as a sort of treaty.
In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! This is a writing to Umar from the Christians of such and such a city. When You [Muslims] marched against us [Christians],: we asked of you protection for ourselves, our posterity, our possessions, and our co-religionists; and we made this stipulation with you, that we will not erect in our city or the suburbs any new monastery, church, cell or hermitage; that we will not repair any of such buildings that may fall into ruins, or renew those that may be situated in the Muslim quarters of the town; that we will not refuse the Muslims entry into our churches either by night or by day; that we will open the gates wide to passengers and travellers; that we will receive any Muslim traveller into our houses and give him food and lodging for three nights; that we will not harbor any spy in our churches or houses, or conceal any enemy of the Muslims. [At least six of these laws were taken over from earlier Christian laws against infidels.] That we will not teach our children the Qu'ran [some nationalist Arabs feared the infidels would ridicule the Qu'ran; others did not want infidels even to learn the language]; that we will not make a show of the Christian religion nor invite any one to embrace it; that we will not prevent any of our kinsmen from embracing Islam, if they so desire. That we will honor the Muslims and rise up in our assemblies when they wish to take their seats; that we will not imitate them in our dress, either in the cap, turban, sandals, or parting of the hair; that we will not make use of their expressions of speech, nor adopt their surnames [infidels must not use greetings and special phrases employed only by Muslims]; that we will not ride on saddles, or gird on swords, or take to ourselves arms or wear them, or engrave Arabic inscriptions on our rings; that we will not sell wine [forbidden to Muslims]; that we will shave the front of our heads; that we will keep to our own style of dress, wherever we may be; that we will wear girdles round our waists [infidels wore leather or cord girdles; Muslims, cloth and silk]. That we will not display the cross upon our churches or display our crosses or our sacred books in the streets of the Muslims, or in their market-places; that we will strike the clappers in our churches lightly [wooden rattles or bells summoned the people to church or synagogue]; that we will not recite our services in a loud voice when a Muslim is present; that we will not carry Palm branches [on Palm Sunday] or our images in procession in the streets; that at the burial of our dead we will not chant loudly or carry lighted candles in the streets of the Muslims or their market places; that we will not take any slaves that have already been in the possession of Muslims, nor spy into their houses; and that we will not strike any Muslim. All this we promise to observe, on behalf of ourselves and our co-religionists, and receive protection from you in exchange; and if we violate any of the conditions of this agreement, then we forfeit your protection and you are at liberty to treat us as enemies and rebels. As made apparent by this document, non-Arab citizens were treated as inferiors. Although it does detail some primary privileges (the right of protection), the laws put into place by the Umayyad Caliphate limited the Christian and Jewish expression of religion, as well as making them pay taxes for said "protection". Additionally, the non-Arab citizens were made to act as second-class members of society, in comparison to their Muslim counterparts, as made apparent by the fact that they could not practice the Islamic faith, or their own, for that matter, in the presence of a Muslim individual. This support the feature of non-Arab inferiority that was present in the conquered lands during the Umayyad Caliphate. |
The Umayyad Legacy: Changes and Continuities
The Umayyad Dynasty is typically remembered negatively throughout history for multiple reasons. Often, it is frowned upon by the Shia, as it represented a false leadership (eventually, it was overtaken by the Abbasids). However, it is also looked down upon because of its endorsement by Osama Bin Laden in the modern century. Despite Bin Laden's wish to revive the Umayyad Caliphate, however, this Dynasty remains a significant symbol of both Islamic culture and historical trends throughout the past millenniums.
One of these continuities is the theme of conquering and expansion. As seen by the Umayyad's expansion across North Africa, Central Asia, and parts of Europe, military conquest played a huge role in the ideals of this empire. With this expansion, the Umayyads created a legacy of cultural diffusion and influence. Throughout history, the motif of conquest is utterly apparent - Charlemagne in Medieval Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and even more recent developments, such as British Imperialism. With this, the theme of cultural unity as a strengthening force is also seen. As the Umayyad Dynasty continued to expand, Islam became a binding force in the empire, making this conquest possible.
However, massive changes also occurred during this time period. For one, Islam became a prominent world power. Although conversion did not play a major role in this dynasty, for the first time, Islam solidified a distinct art form and culture. This is proved by such developments as the Dome of the Rock, which influenced Islamic architecture for years to come. Thus, the legacy of the Umayyad Caliphate can still be seen today, both in its cultural impact, and its shaping of Islam and the entire region of Arabia.
One of these continuities is the theme of conquering and expansion. As seen by the Umayyad's expansion across North Africa, Central Asia, and parts of Europe, military conquest played a huge role in the ideals of this empire. With this expansion, the Umayyads created a legacy of cultural diffusion and influence. Throughout history, the motif of conquest is utterly apparent - Charlemagne in Medieval Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and even more recent developments, such as British Imperialism. With this, the theme of cultural unity as a strengthening force is also seen. As the Umayyad Dynasty continued to expand, Islam became a binding force in the empire, making this conquest possible.
However, massive changes also occurred during this time period. For one, Islam became a prominent world power. Although conversion did not play a major role in this dynasty, for the first time, Islam solidified a distinct art form and culture. This is proved by such developments as the Dome of the Rock, which influenced Islamic architecture for years to come. Thus, the legacy of the Umayyad Caliphate can still be seen today, both in its cultural impact, and its shaping of Islam and the entire region of Arabia.
Works Cited
"Ancient City of Damascus." - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History." The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750). N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Internet History Sourcebooks Project." Internet History Sourcebooks Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Islam, The Arab Empire Of The Umayyads." Islam, The Arab Empire Of The Umayyads. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Islamic Art, Music, And Architecture Around The World." Islamic Art, Music, And Architecture Around The World. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Ancient City of Damascus." - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History." The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750). N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Internet History Sourcebooks Project." Internet History Sourcebooks Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Islam, The Arab Empire Of The Umayyads." Islam, The Arab Empire Of The Umayyads. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
"Islamic Art, Music, And Architecture Around The World." Islamic Art, Music, And Architecture Around The World. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2012.
